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Getting to the 'Core' of Processors

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PCQ Bureau
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The advancements in technologies such as very large scale integration (VLSI),

ultra large scale integration (ULSI) and wafer scale integration (WSI) have made

it possible to integrate millions of transistors on a single chip with great

precision. The microprocessor as we know is an integrated circuit on which all

the components of a computer are present on a single chip. These are capable of

controlling devices ranging from microwave ovens, computers, cell phones to

robotic arms of space ships and have become ubiquitous in the fields of

computing, communications, manufacturing, etc. Allowing more circuitry to be

packed on each chip, processors have consistently been migrating to smaller

feature sizes, resulting in becoming more efficient in terms of both performance

and energy consumption.

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Server class processors



Intel and AMD both have been battling it out in the enterprise consumer

market of servers, blade servers and workstations with their Xeon and Opteron

brand of dual processor and multi processor configurations. Designed for better

performance than their desktop counterparts, these processors have more cache

with better multiprocessing capabilities and have been maintained over several

generations of x86, x86-64 bit processors.

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Google Keyword: multi-core processors

In 2005, Intel and AMD released their first dual core Xeon and Opteron

processors respectively, and since then both consumer and server markets have

constantly seen rise in popularity of multi-core processors, effectively

increasing the processing power on each socket two to four times, and as the

cost of motherboards increase dramatically with the increase in number of

sockets, building a more powerful machine has become a little more economical

with multi-core processors.

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AMD's Opteron



First released in April 2003 with the sledgehammer core, Opteron is the

server line of x86-64 processors from AMD and were initially made on 135 nm

process. Opterons had gained popularity when it comes to multiprocessor

machines, where the CPUs communicated using the Direct Connect architecture over

HyperTransport, a bidirectional serial/parallel high bandwidth, low latency

point to point link. Transparent to the programmer, each CPU can access the main

memory of another processor. The Direct Connect is the I/O architecture which is

also used in AMD's Athlon X2 and Phenom processors.

In May 2005 AMD introduced their first multi-core Opteron CPUs having two

separate processor cores on each die. With multicore Opterons one socket could

delver the performance of two processors and two sockets could deliver of four.

The second generation Opteron processors had three categories, the 1000

series (1processor/2 cores), 2000 series (2 processors/4 cores) and the 8000

series (4 processors/8cores). Based on code named Barcelona core design, the

third generation Quad core Opterons based on a 65 nm process were launched in

2007 AMD is the latest in the line server class processors. AMD claimed that the

new K10 architecture based processors had better power and thermal management

and incorporated a number of improvements, mainly in memory prefetching,

speculative loads, SIMD execution and branch prediction yielding performance

improvements over K8 architecture Opterons. Featuring their Powernow and

Coolcore technologies, AMD claims that the Quad core Opterons are the most power

efficient server processors they have ever produced. These processors also

supported the NX bit and AMDs virtualization technology AMD-V.

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Intel's 45 nm quad-core MCM: Two

dual core dies are placed next to each other to form a four core

configuration.

Future



A core codenamed Shanghai should be seen in the future Opteron processors which
will be based on a 45nm process. Also rumours are that AMD is working on their 6

core Sao Paolo and12 core Magny Cours processors which will be based on the MCM

technique. Further, the server line of processors will incorporate a code named

Buldozer processor with 4 or more cores on a 32 nm process, each supporting SSE5

aimed at better HPC and cryptographic computations.

Intel's Xeon



The Xeon branded 5200 series codenamed Woodcrest, based on the Intel's
core-micro architecture was the server and workstation version of the Intel Core

2 processor. The fastest processor in this category operated at 3.0 GHz,

claiming better performance and also less energy consumption than previous

processors. In Jan 2007, Intel launched its quad-core, core 2 quad, as the 3200

series which comprised of two separate dual core dies placed next to each other

in one CPU package and was targeted for the blades. The 3300 series was similar

to 3200 but was manufactured using 45 nm process and featured XD bit and

virtualization technology.

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True to Intel's tick-tock release cycle of processors where a tick means a

refresh of the current architecture and tock means a brand new architecture, the

clock ticked and the Harpertown Xeons were released in late 2007. This family of

processors consisted of dual die quad core processors manufactured on a 45 nm

process and featured 1333 to 1600 MHz front side bus with lesser TDPs rated

between 50W to 150W depending upon the model.

With Intel becoming an undisputed leader in the quad core arena, the last in

this segment was the 7300 series code named Tigerton, consisted of two dual core

Core2 architecture silicon chips on a single ceramic module. Claiming greater

processing capabilities, the Tigerton was based on the Intel's Caneland (Clarksboro)

platform.

Intel's 45 nm dual core die
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Intel's latest offering



This month Intel has launched its new server class processor codenamed
Dunnington. Dunnington is a 6 core (yes you got it right, 6 cores) processor and

a first of its kind. It means that on a four socket motherboard installing four

Dunnington processors would give you a staggering 24 cores. It features a

single-die six core design and is based on Intel's 45 nm Penryn process. It is

the first Xeon processor to feature 16 MB of L3 cache on board which helps

improve performance by reducing latency in accessing frequently used data.

Desktop processors



A couple of years back, dual or multi-core processors changed the way

desktop processors would function. Intel and AMD both have offerings in this

segment under their Core2 and Athlon X2 brands respectively. Introduced in mid

2006, the brand Core2 refers to Intel's consumer range of 64-bit dual core and

quad core microprocessors based on the x86-64 instruction set. It is based on

Intel's core micro architecture and is an advanced version of the dual core

Yonah microprocessor. The brand Core2 consists of Duo (double core), Quad (four

cores) and Extreme (dual and quad cores for serious enthusiasts), on the other

hand AMD has desktop class processors called Phenom is based on the K10

architecture and consists of triple core versions (Toliman) belonging to the

Phenom 8000 series and the Quad core processors (Agena) that fall in the Phenom

9000 series.

A quad core processor is similar to the dual core with the basic difference

that it has four cores instead of two. Intel's multi-chip module (MCM) or the

quad core version had two separate dual core dies placed next to each other to

provide a quad core configuration; on the other hand AMD claims their Phenom X4

series to be 'true' quad cores as they have all four cores on a single piece of

silicon wafer unlike Intel. Though the clock speeds of these processors are

reduced, the main advantage of core architecture lies in more efficient decoding

stages, execution units, increased cache memory and reduced power consumption.

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The core 2 branded processors from Intel include dual core processors for

desktops named Conroe, Allendale and Wolfdale, whereas the Quad core for

desktops computers consists of Kentsfield and Yorkfield processors. Most of

these processors support features such as Virtualization Technology, ED bit and

SSE3. The Core2 Extreme has Conroe XE (dual core) and Kentsfield XE and

Yorkfield XE (Quad core) processors. The Yorkfield XE is also the first desktop

processor from Intel with 45 nm technology and high k metal gates and features

SSSE 4.1 instruction set.

Intel's future processors



Nehalem is the codename given to Intel's future micro architecture which is

being developed under the Core i7 brand name, comprising a new series of quad

core processors. Due for release in late 2008, processors based on this new

micro architecture shall target high-end desktop and mobile platforms. They are

the successor to the Core architecture and will be based on the 45nm process. It

appears from Intel's spring IDF 2008 that Nehalem is going to incorporate one of

the most significant changes to the current microprocessor architecture. Intel

claims that Nehalem represents the next step in processor energy efficiency,

performance and dynamic scalability. Dynamic scalability in a processor would

mean managed cores, threads, interfaces, cache for energy efficient power on

demand. These processors shall also feature Intel's Quick path technology which

allows the concept of scalable shared memory between different cores with

integrated memory controllers. Intel shall also produce processors based on

Nehalem on a 32 nm process later.

AMD's future processors



AMD is expected to launch its new line of 45 nm processors code named Deneb

FX for Phenom FX, Deneb for Quad core Phenoms, Heka for triple core and Regor

for Athlon X2 with DDR3 compatibility and probably larger shared L3 cache by the

end of 2008.

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Fusion is a future next gen microprocessor that is being developed by AMD and

ATI. It is supposed to combine the general processor execution and 3D geometry

processing and other functions that are performed by a GPU into as single

package and is expected to be first seen in 2009.

'Atom'ic energy



With increase in popularity of ultra mobile personal computers, Intel has come
up with a low power x86 and x86-64 family of microprocessors called Atom. Atom

is Intel's smallest processor ever made, designed for a 45 nm CMOS process and

is intended to target portable and low power applications. It's a low cost

processor with lower clock speeds but powerful enough to run the new wave of

mobile internet devices (MID) and simple entry level low cost laptops. With

devices known as netbooks and nettops gaining popularity, Atom is an ideal

option due to its low power consumption, which results in improved battery life.

Though it's based on an entirely new architecture, Atom was developed to fulfill

the targeted performance with low power consumption while maintaining

compatibility with Intel's Core micro architecture instruction set. It also

features multiple threads for better performance and increased system

responsiveness. Both Indian and other manufacturers have been adopting the

processor in their UMPC and entry level notebooks. These are competitively

priced around 20k or even less depending on the configuration provided. Devices

running on these processors are good enough to keep you connected while on the

move and run your basic productivity apps and capabilities to run entertainment

features.



Processors for notebooks


For notebooks, people are often found confused between platform and processor
naming trends, because laptops are based and advertised on the platform instead

of the processor alone, a little background check on them is necessary. The

platform of a laptop comprises of the main board chipset, the processor and the

wireless network interface tweaked to deliver optimum performance, broader

wireless interoperability and consume minimum power at the same time. This

provides sufficient battery backup while the processor can perform optimally.





There are a number of platforms from Intel including the Napa platform (2006)
that comes with the Centrino logo; the Santa Rosa platform, introduced first in

2007 comes with a Centrino Pro logo. Centrino has been Intel's brand name for

their notebook platform, and in August the company raised curtains over their

fifth generation Centrino2 (Montevina). It claims lesser power consumption than

previously available platforms. These new age platforms boast an Intel Core 2

Duo (code named Penryn) 45 nm processor with clock speeds ranging from 2.26 GHz

to 3.06 GHz, the mobile chipset offers RAM support for DDR2-667, DDR2-800,

DDR3-800, DDR3-1066, DDR3-1333 SODIMM and NAND flash memory caching branded as

Intel turbo memory along with Gigabit Ethernet LAN controllers 82567LM and

82567LF. On the other hand AMD has failed to gain popularity due to less

advertisements and marketing. The latest in platforms from AMD this year is Puma

which features the dual core Turion Ultra or the mobile Sempron processor and

graphics from ATI.



AMD's take on Atom



AMD is expected to launch a very simplified x86 processor codenamed Bobcat
aiming at very low power processing with TDP between 1 and 10W. Bobcat is

expected to make its debut in the UMPC, handheld devices and other small form

factor consumer devices.


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